Competencies for BI 231
Outline the hierarchical organization of the human body. Define
physiology and homeostasis.
List the organ systems of the human body, then give a general function
for each and list several organs that form each.
Understand directional terms in anatomy, such as proximal, superior,
etc.
Understand body planes.
Know the body cavities. Know the various serous membranes.
List and describe the three elements of any homeostatic control
mechanisms. Distinguish between a negative feedback system and a
positive feedback system and give examples of each.
Name four major groups of organic compounds from which our bodies are
composed. Name the subunits of which the molecules in each of these
groups are composed. Give general functions in the human body for each
of the major groups of organic compounds.
Compare and contrast DNA, messenger RNA, transfer RNA and ribosomal
RNA with respect to structure, function and location in the cell (nucleus
versus cytoplasm).
Describe ATP, in terms of general chemical composition and activities
in the human body.
CELLS
Describe the chemical composition, structure and function of the plasma
membrane. Describe the processes of simple diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, osmosis, filtration, and active transport. Understand the
terms concentration gradient, isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic.
Define phagocytosis, pinocytosis, endocytosis and exocytosis.
Define cytoplasm and organelle. Be able to recognize the structure
and position in the cell of each of the following: rough endoplasmic
reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondria,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, centrioles, microtubules, intermediate filaments,
and microfilaments. Know the function(s) of each of the preceding
Describe the position in the cell, structure and function of the
nucleus. Describe each of the following: nuclear envelope, nuclear
pores, nucleolus, chromatin, chromosomes, genes.
Describe the location, structure and functions of cilia and flagella.
Describe extracellular materials.
Describe cell division by mitosis using the terms prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, telophase and interphase. Describe what happens in each stage.
How are new proteins made using the information in genes? (Use
transcription and translation in your description.)
TISSUES
Define tissue. Name the four major types of tissues in the human body.
Then describe their structural characteristics, locations in the body,
and functions. Know which types are mitotic in adults, and therefore
give rise to cancers. Understand the terms "carcinoma" and "sarcoma".
Describe the microscopic appearance, location and function of the
following types of epithelia: simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple
columnar, pseudostratified, transitional, nonkeratinized stratified
squamous, keratinized stratified squamous.
Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands. Describe the
classification of exocrine glands according to structure and function.
Give an example of each of the three functional types (holocrine,
apocrine and merocrine)
Describe the microscopic appearance, location in body, and function of
each of the following connective tissues: loose (areolar, adipose,
reticular), dense (regular and irregular), hyaline cartilage,
fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage.
SKIN
Distinguish between epidermis and dermis structurally and functionally.
Describe and indicate the importance of each of the epidermal layers
of the skin, beginning with the inner most and proceeding to the outer
most.
Know the functions of the integumentary system.
Describe how skin color is produced, and the protective role of
melanin.
Describe the structure and growth of a hair.
Contrast the locations and functions of sebaceous glands, eccrine
sudoriferous glands, and apocrine sudoriferous glands. Describe the
secretions of each.
Distinguish among the classes of burns and comment on the homeostatic
imbalances caused by serious burns.
Know the types of skin cancer.
BONES
List and describe the five principal functions of bones.
List and describe the parts of a long bone, then give the functions of
each part.
Describe the general features of bone tissue, including cell types and
chemical composition. Indicate what each of the following is: compact
bone, spongy bone, osteocyte, osteoblast, collagen, calcium phosphate,
red marrow and yellow marrow. Describe the composition of a Haversian
system including the terms lamellae, lacunae and central canal.
Understand ossification. Distinguish between endochondral and
intramembranous ossification.
Know how we grow taller in childhood and then stop growing in early
adulthood.
Describe giantism, acromegaly, pituitary dwarfism and achrondroplasia.
Explain what causes each of them.
Describe bone remodeling and its importance in adapting bone to the
demands we place on it. Explain the importance of weight-bearing
exercise, gravity and the electrical currents generated inside bones.
Compare the effects of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin on the
skeleton.
Describe osteoporosis, its symptoms and its risk factors. Also
describe osteomalacia and rickets.
List and describe the types of fractures of bones. Describe the
process of fracture repair, including the terms hematoma, callus and
ossification.
Know which bones are axial and which are appendicular.
Describe synarthroses, amphiarthroses and diarthroses, and give an
example of each type of joint.
Diagram a synovial joint and explain the function of the joint
capsule, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, articular (hyaline) cartilage
and ligaments.
Describe bursae and tendon sheaths.
Diagram the knee joint. Explain the functions of the medial and
lateral collateral ligaments, the anterior and posterior cruciate
ligaments, the meniscuses, and the patella.
Describe knee injuries and their symptoms.
Distinguish between
flexion, extension and hyperextension
abduction and adduction
circumduction and rotation
suppination and pronation of hands
plantarflexion and dorsiflexion of feet
inversion and eversion of feet
protraction and retraction of shoulder and jaw
elevation and depression of shoulder and jaw
List the six types of synovial joints, and give an example of each.
Distinguish between sprains, cartilage injuries, dislocations,
bursitis, tendonitis, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and gouty
arthritis.
MUSCLES
Know the differences between skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.
Describe the components of skeletal muscle starting from the whole
muscle and working down to actin and myosin myofilaments.
Describe the parts of a skeletal muscle fiber (cell), including its
sarcolemma
transverse tubules
terminal cisternae
sarcoplasmic reticulum
myofibrils
sarcomeres, actin and myosin myofilaments, Z lines
multiple nuclei, pushed to the edge
Describe the sliding filament mechanism . Your description should
include myosin heads, actin and Z lines.
Explain what creates the A bands and I bands in skeletal and cardiac
muscle fibers.
Explain how calcium starts contraction in a muscle fiber.
Know the function of ATP in contraction, and be able to explain rigor
mortis.
Describe how motor neurons stimulate skeletal muscle fibers to
contract by releasing acetylcholine in neuromuscular junctions. Know why
it is vital that the enzyme acetylcholinesterase quickly breaks down
acetylcholine Know how nerve gasses and insecticides kill.
Know what happens when a skeletal muscle fiber is stimulated to
contract by acetylcholine. Also know how the muscle fiber relaxes.
Explain why striated muscles, both skeletal and cardiac, become
stronger when they are moderately stretched but weaker when they are
overly stretched.
Know how skeletal muscle fibers are organized into motor units.
Be able to define the following terms:
isotonic muscle contraction
isometric muscle contraction
muscle tone
tetanic contraction
muscle atrophy
muscle hypertrophy
Compare red slow twitch, intermediate fast twitch and white fast
twitch fibers with regard to speed and power, endurance, ATP generation,
myoglobin content and use in the body.
Become familiar with aerobic and anaerobic skeletal muscle metabolism,
including the roles of ATP, creatine phosphate, lactic acid, fat and
glycogen. Describe oxygen debt and the liver’s role in eliminating it.
Describe the three classes of levers and provide an example for each
in the human body.
Define prime mover, antagonist, synergist and fixator.
Describe how muscles are named.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Be able to write from memory the organizational chart of the nervous
system
List the four kinds of neuroglia and the function(s) each performs.
Know the two functions of the myelin sheath.
Compare and contrast white and gray matter with regard to their myelin
(or lack of), location and function.
Describe the parts of a typical neuron, and explain what each part
does.
Classify neurons both structurally and functionally.
Describe what creates resting potential.
Describe what happens during depolarization and repolarization.
Explain how saltatory conduction greatly speeds up impulses.
Know why excess potassium in the blood cause the heart to beat once
and then stop.